<br>From: <b class="gmail_sendername">Kamayani</b> <span dir="ltr"><<a href="mailto:kamayni@gmail.com">kamayni@gmail.com</a>></span><br><div class="gmail_quote"><div class="gmail_quote"><br><a href="http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2811%2960215-8/fulltext" target="_blank">http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736%2811%2960215-8/fulltext</a><br>
<br><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 26px; font-weight: bold; ">Health care for urban poor falls through the gap</span><br><div><div><div>
Original Text</div><span><a href="http://www.thelancet.com/search/results?fieldName=Authors&searchTerm=Priya+Shetty" target="_blank">Priya Shetty</a> </span></div></div><div><div>
<div>While
governments and donors focus on health care for those living in rural
poverty in developing countries, the residents of the world's slums are
being neglected, writes Priya Shetty.</div><div>The
slums of Mumbai and the favelas of Rio de Janeiro are images of urban
poverty so extreme that they are indelibly stamped on the identity of
those cities. But urban poverty now goes far beyond these notorious
icons.</div><div>The world is becoming more urbanised overall .
2008 was a demographic turning point—for the first time, according to
the UN Population Fund (UNFPA), more people lived in urban areas than in
rural ones. Yet these new urbanites, especially in developing
countries, are overwhelming cities that were never designed to have so
many inhabitants, and therefore simply do not have the infrastructure to
cope.</div><div><div><br></div>
<div><div><br></div></div></div><div>These
people struggle on a daily basis with poor housing, a lack of basic
services such as electricity and water, and extreme overcrowding that
often leads to infectious disease epidemics. They do not have the
capacity to afford health care that wealthy city dwellers access but
neither do they benefit from health programmes run by non-governmental
organisations (NGOs) or governments in the way that rural areas do. In
short, they fall through the cracks, living in the hinterlands of health
care.</div><div>Developing nations and foreign
donors have ignored the problem to an extraordinary degree. Governments
such as China and Vietnam have responded to growing urbanisation by
instituting draconian measures to stop migration from villages to
cities. Donors, meanwhile, have continued to focus on the rural poor, in
part because these populations are easier to target through vertical
health programmes.</div><div>But the problem of
extreme urban poverty is becoming harder to wish away. The UN says that
most of the world's future population growth will be in cities in
low-income and middle-income countries. Asia and Africa are projected to
double their urban populations from 1·7 billion in 2000 to 3·4 billion
in 2030, according to the 2007 UNFPA report: <i>State of the world's population: unleashing the potential of urban growth</i>.</div><div>The
urban poor rarely fare better than their rural counterparts when it
comes to health. Infant mortality and childhood vaccination rates are
about the same in both populations. If anything, the health of the urban
poor can be even worse than that of rural populations. According to the
Urban Health Resource Centre in India, slum children are even more
likely than rural children to be malnourished. Overcrowding makes
outbreaks of respiratory diseases such as tuberculosis much more likely.
For instance, in impoverished parts of the city of Karachi in Pakistan,
tuberculosis prevalence is twice the national average. Running water
and sewage systems are non-existent in most slums. WHO says that in
urban areas, almost 137 million people have no access to safe drinking
water, and more than 600 million do not have adequate sanitation.</div><div>Even
though the health needs of the urban poor are high, they have virtually
no access to health care. This is partly because of the “ineffective
outreach and weak referral system of the urban public health system”,
says Indrajit Hazarika, senior lecturer at the Indian Institute of
Public Health, Delhi. “Social exclusion and lack of information and
assistance restricts the use of private facilities by poor people. More
importantly, lack of economic resources inhibits the use of private
facilities. These make the urban poor more vulnerable and worse off than
their rural counterparts.”</div><div>One main
reason for the lack of access to health care is that slum populations
are not considered to be a part of urban society. Since slums are
usually illegal structures, local governments tend not to acknowledge
their existence except when they are demolishing them, and no money is
invested in counting or mapping. This situation means that the
inhabitants of slums are unable to get social benefits such as
subsidised health care. Women's health is especially neglected—1 billion
Indian babies are born in slums every year with little or no medical
assistance.</div><div>Mapping the urban poor is
also challenging because slums are still largely undefined. After
analysing USAID's Demographic Health Survey, Anthony Kolb, urban health
adviser at USAID, found that the definition of a slum is fairly
nebulous. Hazarika agrees. In hugely overcrowded cities such as Mumbai,
for instance, where housing is some of the most costly in the world,
living in decrepit, “slumlike” housing does not always connote extreme
poverty or disadvantage, he says.</div><div>The use
of aggregate data on health indicators also complicates the issue
because the disparity between the health needs and access to care
between poor and rich people can be extreme. “To get beyond that
simplistic analysis one must use a combination of sample survey
information that considers a wealth measure, and use creative mapping
techniques to describe the often interesting geographic aspects of urban
poverty, eg, slum mapping”, Kolb tells <i>The Lancet</i>.</div><div><div><div><div><br></div>
</div></div></div><div>Some
developing countries are now starting to realise the urgency of this
problem. In Bangladesh, for instance, government agencies are using
mapping technologies to identify the distribution of slums across
cities.</div><div>Progress is extremely slow and
halting, however. For instance, the Indian Government set up the
National Rural Health Mission in 2005 to prevent and treat disease in
rural areas, and, some experts say, to make rural life easier so that
people would not migrate into cities. The country was due to launch a
National Urban Health Mission, but last year this plan was shelved
indeterminately. In theory, the two missions will now be combined, and a
joint National Health Mission launched, but this will not happen until
after 2012.</div><div>When developing governments
do finally engage with this issue, they will face two major challenges:
the best way to improve housing, and the most effective way to increase
access to health care. Upgrading existing slums can be difficult. Often,
they are tightly and haphazardly clustered together, so putting in
electricity lines or water pipes is almost impossible. Yet relocating
residents is not straightforward either because some slum communities
have existed for years which gives their inhabitants a sense of
“identity and belonging and community ties”, says Peter Williams,
founder of Archive, an NGO that works on the link between housing and
health. Archive tends to favour upgrading, but Williams says that often,
those in political and economic power push hard for relocation when
communities occupy land that has a high commercial value.</div><div>The
challenge of providing health care is enormous, and the best way to go
about it is contentious. Given that slum communities are at constant
risk of eviction and relocation, providing a continuous health service
can be problematic. When slum populations are growing so fast, it is not
economically feasible to provide handouts, nor could any government
ever build enough hospitals to service these populations, says Williams.
In any case, he points out, there is an inherent futility to giving
someone a course of tuberculosis drugs then sending them right back to
the terrible housing conditions that puts them at constant risk of
reinfection. Instead, Williams advocates training up local community
health workers who can travel in the slums to provide basic health care
and education.</div><div>Meanwhile, Hazarika says
that “mere provision for home-based or facility-based care is unlikely
to solve the problem. An important intermediate step would be to bring
poor people under a social security net, to provide financial assistance
and facilitate their access to health services.” USAID consultant
Anthony Kolb agrees. Urban life is typically much more cash dependent
than rural life. “As a result”, he says, “addressing the affordability
of health care access in urban areas is typically a much higher priority
or more appropriate approach than focusing on physical accessibility”.</div><div>Health
policy makers clearly have major challenges ahead, and will need to
work extremely closely with departments of housing and education, for
example, if they are to make any headway. But there needs to be a major
shift in policy makers' attitudes to urbanisation, says George Martine,
author of the 2007 UNFPA report, and now an independent consultant on
urbanisation. A recent UN survey showed that policy makers are still
futilely trying to obstruct urbanisation, says Martine. Since
urbanisation is inevitable, he says, urban planners and policy makers
must be prepared to radically rethink the existing infrastructure.</div><div>One
obvious reason is that advanced planning will be cheaper and easier
than dealing with the situation in a few decades time. Martine warns
that the failure to plan properly for urban expansion can be
catastrophic. Extreme poverty, scarce resources, and social exclusion
are often the factors that have fuelled the violence, gang warfare, and
drug trafficking that have characterised slums and ghettos in Latin
America, says Martine, who is based in Brazil. Although the high rates
of urbanisation in Latin America, and Brazil in particular, has led to
rapid economic growth, it has left a troubling legacy of social dystopia
in many cities where the urban poor are subject to inequity in all
aspects of life. Martine warns that “unless African and Asian countries,
who are at the beginning of their urban transition, take a more
proactive stance [to urban development], this could very easily become
part of their future problems”.</div></div></div></div></div><br>