<div> </div>
<div>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><span lang="ES" style="mso-ansi-language: ES"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">Patriarchy, masculinities and health inequalities</font></font></span></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">Alex Scott-Samuel</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="5"> </font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">Introduction</font></font></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="5">I want to draw attention to a central —and remediable— cause</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">of social and material inequalities in health which, despite this</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">status, is an )elephant in the room: an issue that almost all are</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">aware of but which is never addressed directly by those involved</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">with health inequality and public policy. While it is commonplace</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">to discuss the impact of gender inequality on women and girls1</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">and while it is also becoming commoner to discuss its impact on</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">men and boys, something which is never discussed is its general</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">impact on all public policy. However, there is a strong case to</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">be made that one particular, patriarchal, form of masculinity is</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">almost globally dominant, and that this dominance is reflected in</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">unhealthy and antisocial patterns of socialisation which affect</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">most if not all children and adults in Europe and in most societies</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">worldwide. Furthermore, this socialisation has major and unack-</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">nowledged impacts on public policy-impacts which contribute</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">importantly to much of the inequality and suffering experienced</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">by humankind.</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">Concepts and definitions</font></font></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="5">First some concepts and definitions. Patriarchy is the syste-</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">matic domination by men of women and of other men.</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">Masculinities are the range of alternative ways (national, social,</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">racial, sexual) in which male gender relations are expressed</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">(for example, working class, Latin American and gay masculinities).</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">Hegemonic masculinity is the form of masculinity which is</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">culturally and politically dominant at a particular time and place.</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">Health inequality refers to unfair or unjust differences in health</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">determinants or outcomes within or between defined popula-</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">tions. Structural violence is suffering caused by public policies and</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">institutions. Hegemony is a subtle and complex process whereby</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">particular beliefs, values and ideologies are reinforced by those</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">with political and cultural power such that they become perceived</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">as both natural and inevitable, in the words of former UK prime</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">minister Margaret Thatcher, speaking of market liberalism, )there</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="5">is no alternative*.</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">Hegemonic masculinity now</font></font></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="5">Given what we know of the massive scale of global sociocul-</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">tural variation it is extraordinary that, despite this diversity, a</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">relatively specific form of gender relations has for many years</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">remained globally dominant. I am referring to the variant</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">of masculinity which is characterised by generally agreed</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">)negative* attributes such as toughness, aggressiveness, excessive</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">risk-taking, suppression of emotions; positive attributes such as</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">strength, protectiveness, decisiveness, courage: and more contes-</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">ted attributes like individualism, competitiveness, rationality, and</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">practicality.</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="5">Perhaps the hegemonic dominance of this form of masculinity</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">is not all that surprising if one considers its obvious overlaps with</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">the equally dominant (neo)liberal economic relations of the free</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">market. More worrying is the fact that worldwide acceptance</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">of childhood socialisation into the above negative features</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">of this hegemonic masculinity is what subsequently results in</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">power inequalities between individuals, between social/racial/</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">gender groups and between institutions —and in turn— in the</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">individual and the structural violence through which power</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">inequalities are expressed. What I’m effectively saying is that patriarchal sociali-sation and hegemonic masculinity are unacknowledged, preven-</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">table causes of most health inequalities.</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">Structural violence</font></font></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="5">Structural violence is a concept originally used in peace</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">studies. It differs from interpersonal violence in that it refers to</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">oppression and suffering caused by structural relations, such</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">as the civil, social and economic relations of public policy.</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">Its abstract nature should in no way detract from its importance.</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">In my view structural violence is a key concept for public health:</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">it provides a common conceptual framework for events as diverse</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">as what Engels called the social murder of the poor which</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">resulted from exploitative and oppressive 19th century living</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">and working conditions, the widespread suffering caused by the</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">aggressive economic and trade policies of the World Bank and the</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="5">World Trade Organisation, the avoidable damage caused by</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">unaffordable drugs or health care, and the terrible results of wars,</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">genocide, racism, and poverty.</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">An interesting example of the worldwide relationship between</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">hegemonic masculinity and structural violence is in a paper by</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">Caprioli and Boyer from the international relations literature.</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">They found that States that are characterized by higher levels</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">of gender equality (as shown by higher proportions of women</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">in national parliaments) use lower levels of violence during</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">international crises than those with lower levels of gender</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">equality. Such findings have important implications for how we</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">manage our societies, not least, for how we manage the health</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">inequalities resulting from the many varieties of structural</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">violence.</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">What is to be done?</font></font></b></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">While it is tempting to view the globally endemic problems of</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">patriarchy and hegemonic masculinity in a resigned and fatalistic</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">way, it is also important to acknowledge that they are —at least in</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">principle— preventable. The previous Swedish government’s</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="5">Education Ministry established a Delegation on Gender Equality</font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">in Preschool which looked at the ways in which, from the very</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">beginning of education and socialisation, children in preschool</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">education face systematically gendered policies and practices,</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">and which made recommendations to change this situation</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">(unfortunately the report is not available in English). This provides</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">a small example of how such issues can legitimately begin to be</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">addressed through public policy. Given the nature of the global</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">institutions whose practices help to sustain patriarchy —such as</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">many of the world’s major religions— I would not pretend that the</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">task will be an easy one. Nonetheless, there is much to be said for</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">adopting a public health perspective on these issues. If we can</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">generate evidence and debate around the notion that patriarchy is</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">a preventable disease, this is a valid and a potentially useful</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">way forward. Another helpful approach would be to build public</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">pressure for a global commission on masculinities.</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">The fact that virtually no one is currently acknowledging, let</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">alone addressing this issue makes it no less important as a key</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font size="5"><font face="Times New Roman">global cause of mortality, morbidity and inequality. Discussion</font></font></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="MARGIN: 0in 0in 0pt"><font face="Times New Roman" size="5">and action are long overdue.</font></p></div>